Feminine Virtues in the Ibo Tribe essays

Feminine Virtues in the Ibo Tribe essays In Things Fall Apart, Chinua Achebe shows the importance of feminine virtues in the Ibo tribe. In the novel women, regarded highly for their importance in bearing children and acting as wives, receive praised for their significance. Achebe illustrates the women of the tribe as strong, powerful people whose importance you cannot fail to notice. Anasi was a middle aged woman, tall and strongly built. There was authority in her bearing and she looked every inch the ruler of the womenfolk in a large and prosperous family (Achebe 20). Often entrusted with instilling morality in their children and governing their conduct, women in the tribe hold high regard in the respects of their fellow tribes people. A female goddess will remind men to uphold their morals and mind their conduct, much the way a mother would her child. Once again, a mother holds a high magnitude in the tribe. Mothers and wives appear as the only two positions that women in the Ibo tribe can receive praise for. Outside these roles of acting as mother and/or wife, a woman will receive little, if any respect. It was clear from the way the crowd stood that this was a ceremony for me. There were many women, but they looked on from the fringe like outsiders (Achebe 87). With festivals held in public places, men presided and took seats of honor in front. Women, forced to stand at the edges, looked on from there because they simply did not hold importance. Also, throughout the book, Achebe emphasizes the womens role in childbearing and their fault if the childs would not occur healthily. Nneka has had four previous pregnancies and childbirths. But each time she had born twins, and they had been immediately thrown away. Her husband and his family were already becoming highly critical of such a woman and were not unduly perturbed when they found she had fled to join the Christians. It was a good rid ...

16 Classic Russian Jokes

16 Classic Russian Jokes Russian humor can be difficult to understand even if you speak fluent Russian. This is often because many Russian jokes play on cultural stereotypes, political events, popular culture, and Soviet-time movies. Russian jokes are called Ð °Ã ½Ã µÃ ºÃ ´Ã ¾Ã'‚ and have a unique history. The first Ð °Ã ½Ã µÃ ºÃ ´Ã ¾Ã'‚Ã'‹ came to Russia through the European tradition of telling interesting, often funny stories. They were popular in the aristocratic circles and eventually developed into the classic joke similar to those in the West. However, these jokes took on a very political slant during the 70 years of the Soviet era. This unique perspective allowed for the development of an unusual, specific Russian humor characterized by its themes of political or cultural relevance. Soviet Jokes About Political Leaders Imgorthand / Getty Images Soviet political leaders provided a lot of material for new jokes, especially Stalin, Brezhnev, and Khrushchev, due to their odd or funny behavior as well as the paradoxical and claustrophobic nature of the Soviet life. 1.Thats enough of messing around, said Brezhnev, gluing his eyebrows under his nose. 2. Brezhnev is speaking at a party meeting. Who said that I can only speak when I have the speech in front of me? Ha, dash, ha, dash, ha, dash. 3. - Do you have a hobby, Leonid Ilyich?- Of course! I collect jokes about myself.- Have you got many?- Two and a half labor camps already! Jokes About Everyday Soviet Life Life was difficult in the Soviet Union, with stores often displaying empty shelves and politics generating a high level of stress and suspicion. People were painfully aware of the lack of things that were considered completely ordinary abroad. All production was done within the country and everything was grey and clunky compared to what was being produced in the West. People responded by coming up with jokes that played on the contrast between life in the Soviet Union and life elsewhere. 4. Two cassette players meet up. One is Japanese, the other is Soviet-made. The Soviet one says:- Is it true that your owner has bought you a new cassette?- Yeah.- Can I have a chew? 5. - What would you do if they opened the borders?- I would climb a tree.- Why?- So I dont get killed in the stampede. Jokes About Contemporary Life in Russia 6. They caught Bin Laden. Washed him, gave him a haircut, turned out it was Berezovsky. 7. A factory worker in a Western country shows his house to his Russian colleague.- Heres my room, this one is my wifes, this is my eldest daughters, thats our dining room, then the guest bedroom... etc.The Russian guest nods and says, after a pause:- Well, its basically similar to mine. Only we dont have the internal walls. New Russians Jokes Arndt_Vladimir / Getty Images New Russians appeared in the 1990s, after the fall of the Soviet Union, as the Russian nouveaux riches. They quickly became the subject of many jokes due to their lack of culture, education, and manners, as well as their garish tastes. New Russians were usually depicted as low in intelligence and reliant on money to solve everything. 8. Two New Russians are driving in a Jeep and see a sign Traffic police - 100m. One of them takes out his wallet and begins to count the money. Then he sighs and says You know what, Vovan, I dont think we have enough for a hundred cops. 9. A New Russian says to an architect:- I want you to build three swimming pools: one with cold water, one with warm water, and one without any water.- Why would the third one not have any water?- Cuz some of my friends cant swim. Jokes About Lenin Andrei Vasilev / Getty Images Just like other political leaders, Lenin has been the butt of many Russian jokes. His character traits, his manner of speech, and his post-death stay at the Moscow mausoleum are all popular topics. 10. A tired father of six comes home after a night shift. The kids surround him and demand to play. He says:- Okay, lets play a game called Mausoleum where Ill be Lenin and youll be the guards. 11. A journalist interviews Lenin.- Vladimir Ilyich, how did you come up with the slogan Study, study, and study?- I didnt come up with anything, I was just trying out a new pen! Jokes About Lieutenant Rzhevsky Lieutenant Rzhevsky is a fictional character in a play by Aleksandr Gladkov and the movie based on the play, The Hussar Ballad. Possessing both negative and positive character traits, Rzhevsky became a popular subject of Soviet jokes after the release of the movie. Although the original character is not that much of a womanizer, it is this trait in particular that dominates the jokes about him. Interestingly, the jokes usually also feature Natasha Rostova, one of the main characters of Tolstoys War and Peace. The reason for this is that while Rzhevsky represents a vulgar, highly sexualized military man, Natasha Rostova depicts the more traditional ideals of a woman as seen in Russian culture as a demure and charming character. The contrast between them creates plenty of opportunities for jokes. 12. Natasha Rostova is at a ball.- It is terribly hot in here. Lieutenant Rzhevsky, perhaps we could open something?- With my greatest pleasure! Would you prefer champagne or cognac? 13. - Chaps, Im so tired of the same old card games! Why dont we go to the theatre instead? They are putting on Three Sisters.Lieutenant Rzhevsky:- This is going to work out brilliantly! There are three of us, too! Jokes About Little Vovochka STUDIOGRANDOUEST / Getty Images Equivalent to Little Johny, Little Vovochka originated in the early 20th century as a nameless little boy who would shock others with his vulgar behavior. Eventually, the little boy became Little Vovochka as an ironic homage to such leaders of Russia as Vladimir the Great and Vladimir Lenin. More recently, Vladimir Putin also joined the ranks of the Vovochkas. 14. A teacher asks:- Children, who has a pet at home?Everyone raises their hands and shouts out Cat! Dog! Hedgehog!Little Vovochka raises his hand and says Lice, ticks, cockroaches! 15. Little Vovochka decided to become president when he grows up. And he did. Jokes About Chapaev Chapaev was a celebrated Russian army commander during the Russian Civil War. After a Soviet movie was made about him in 1934, Chapaev became a popular subject of Russian jokes. His sidekick, Petka, is usually present in the jokes, too. 16. Petka asks Chapayev:- Vassily Ivanovich, can you drink half a liter of vodka?- Of course!- What about a full liter?- Sure!- How about a whole barrel?- No problem, I can drink that easily.- Can you drink a river of vodka?- Nah, I cant do that. Where would I get such a giant gherkin?

Summary on Creep Behavior of Discontinuous SiC-Al composites Essay

Summary on Creep Behavior of Discontinuous SiC-Al composites - Essay Example The first experiment tested compressed creep on SiC with 3-5 wt. percentages of Li at a temperature of 505-866k. The results showed that Li increases the strengthening power of SiC and its wetting behavior. The second experiment tested the creep behavior of SiCw and SiCp covered with aluminum alloy at a temperature of 505-644k. The results showed that both composites were steady but SiCW was more resistant to creep compared to SiCp. The results were because of the variations in the components load bearing abilities, their strengths and the applied temperatures. The conducted experiments revealed that the quality of creep rates depend on the applied temperatures and stress (Mohamed, Park & Lavernia 22). The article also used the shear lag method to test the creep rate of discontinuous composites by applying stress and geographic parameters. In this method, the composite has short fibers inserted in the creeping matrix; the shear transports the load from the matrix to fiber and this ap proach applies creep power law. This method is efficient in transferring the load from matrix to fiber and handling stress level within the fiber. ... In the experiment, the composite phase acted as a regular aligns and there was periodic array of fibers. The experiment applied the creep power law by ensuring that reinforcement phase remains elastic (Mohamed, Park & Lavernia 26). The results indicated that matrix develops higher stress, which reduces composites creep rates. It also showed that geometry arrangements affect the quality of the creep rate. Indeed, the results note that creep law favors the Ag-40wt. percentage composites only but not the composites of SiC-Al (Mohamed, Park & Lavernia 27). Considering the obtained results, the article explains the deformation models using dislocation motion. It analyses whether similar dislocation processes can be applicable for both DS alloy creep and the SiC-Al composites creep. In addition, the article also evaluates successfully the characteristics of deformation process on DS alloys and SiC-Al composites. The article highlights the strain exponent of creep and identifies the followi ng assumptions. Firstly, the high stress exponent and variations results from threshold stress. Additionally, the threshold stress and strength applied on the creep depends on applied stress and lastly, the activation energy for SiC-Al composites and DS alloys are similar (Mohamed, Park & Lavernia 30). The article concludes that SiC-Al composites and DS alloys have similar creep behaviors regardless of their stress exponent and activation energies. Importantly, the article identifies that shear log assumptions on the creep behavior of SiC-al are inconsistence. Indeed, the study offers the similarities in the creep behavior among composites, the evidential calculations and dissimilarities among activation

Leadership approach Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Leadership approach - Essay Example the aforementioned students, the animal owners who seek the services of the veterinary college as well as the clinicians. The Problem: Given the considerable job descriptions of the staff, coupled with the lack of resources and the need to provide excellent services, the staff finds itself in the classic low morale conundrum; too much work and effort required for a job description that is become less enviable by the day. This, in short, can be categorized as the crux of the problem that I face under the leadership aspect of my role as the finance manager. ... The major weakness of this concept is ironically related to its major strengths in that the rather malleable nature of production does not allow the firm to establish a solid ground in any of the different businesses that it participates in i.e. its becomes somewhat of a jack of all trades and master of none. Due to this lack of immovability, the firm is not able to continue a specific production practice for a large period of time, hence, is unable to ascertain best production practices and any other cost cutting techniques, thus, it always produces at a level that has to be considered in optimal for the firm. (Yinghong, 2006) McDonald’s is a pertinent example of the correct use of moving competencies as they have been able to strike the perfect balance between the usability of moving competencies and defining their basic company objectives and areas of expertise. Therefore, despite the fact that McDonald’s is expanding both is scale of operations and in its product ra nge, it is still intrinsically a fast food joint which it has been able to maintain due to its best practices and strong adamancy on quality assurance. From this description, it can be easily surmised that the need of the hour for the manager is to implement the system of moving competencies in a way that would oversee the creation of synergies and the institution of best practices in the form that ‘every job is done by that specific person who does it best’. Therefore, the creation of conjoined skills development becomes a necessity and the onus lies on the finance manager to institute the change that is needed for the creation of an open learning and

Impact and Application of Nanotechnology

Impact and Application of Nanotechnology Isayah Wedderburn The wonders of nanotechnology       Abstract This project is going to inform you on the wonders of nanotechnology and how it can improves our lives in the future. Also, the different ways in which nanotechnology is assessed as an entirety in regards to it being a benefit for the future or harmful. We will explore the purpose of the researching into nanotechnology. Identifying and evaluating the purpose of the research In the next week read a book on nanotechnology to gain a foundation on how nanotechnology works and what it is. Within the first two weeks of the project read 2 journals on the medical application of nanotechnology and the theory of nanotechnology to understand nanotechnology is and how to it could impact on our future to generate a great insight on nanotechnology. In the next 5 days using the information gained throughout online research and reading a book construct a plan of different analytical techniques that can be used to evaluate nanotechnology ( i.e. methodology, evaluation and summary) and come to a conclusion. Overview A nanometre is a billionth of a metre. (Report in co-operation with the OECD International Futures Programme 2016,p 6) Nanoscience is the study of phenomena and manipulation of materials at atomic, molecular and macromolecular scales in order to understand and exploit properties that differ significantly from those on a larger scale. (Report in co-operation with the OECD International Futures Programme2016) [DS1]Nanotechnology is any design, structure, systems of materials or materials when working from 1-100nm. Nanotechnology involves an array of scientific disciplines such as chemistry, physics, biology and electronics and engineering. It has been around since the ninth century. However, modern technology enables us gain an insight and thus be able to exploit the working of nanotechnology. Additionally, it has many advantages that may able to develop civilization and improves our lives or may be a drawback to society and cause more harm than good. Nanotechnology would be paramount to future of humanity due to the fact that it has many desirable applications, not only that, it is used in a vast amount of different fields. Therefore, itll help the world develop and make improves the well-being on a global scale. The up and coming field has many potential contributions to medicine. (Report in co-operation with the OECD International Futures Programme 2016,p16)[DS2] have said Nano devices could be used for encapsulation: there are Nano capsules that are used for cancer patients. The capsule (quantum dot) travels to the site of the tumour without damaging healthy cells then diffuses and releases the toxins at an appropriate rate, killing the target tumour. A similar method could be used to detect diseases in patients at the most primitive stage to prevent any detrimental progression. Nonetheless, in the clinical field extensive trials have to be taken for the drug to be deemed suitable. This means that all the medical applications of nanotechnology will take the longest to come to fruition. Drug delivery is would be the most profitable application of this technology. Thus billions or trillions of dollars should be invested into this. The most popular use and potential part of nanotechnology is the Nanotube. It is made of carbon and a carbon nanotube is a cylinder of carbon atoms covalently bonded together. The nanotube popularity stems from its properties and structure. (Richard Booker, Earl Boysen 2005,P 68) A sheet of graphite is very strong because of the interlocking carbon-to-carbon bonds. The graphite sheets can slide across each other easily, which makes graphite useful as a lubricant. The tensile strength of the nanotube is close to 100 times greater than that of steel of the same diameter. According to Report in co-operation with the OECD International Futures Programme (Report in co-operation with the OECD International Futures Programme 2016,P10) Therefore, carbon nanotubes could be used for car to absorb a significant amount of damage due to its high tensile strength or gurder that bend instead of rapturing in an earthquake. (Report in co-operation with the OECD International Futures Programme 2016,P 9) However, there are problems with the nanotube, one of which is it is difficult to interact with different materials. For instance for functionalisation (changing the properties of nanotube by chemically binding it with other chemicals) to occur the nanotubes need to be reacted with a polymer. But this reduces the effect of its properties. Nonetheless, Scientists are trying to discover a way to overcome this process without inhibiting the properties of the nanotube. Social applications of Nontechnology (Richard Booker and Earl Boysen, 2005[DS3])Nanotechnology is still in its infant stages. Nonetheless, itll blossom slowly and become intertwined into most fields; nanotechnology will become an integral part of our lives like mobile phones. (Richard Booker and Earl Boysen, 2005[DS4]) Albeit, nanotechnology has a lot of potential to pave the way for the next revolution to become something great. However with new technology there are always social, economic and ethical issues that we have to consider, to allow commercialization for the new product. As nanotechnology is still progressing humanity is unaware of the detriment to the environment or the damage to the people of the future generation that may transpire. Unfortunately, there have been recent studies to that show toxicity exist through the result of using nanomaterials. Additionally, government and corporations are observing the effect on nanotechnology with gm crops to human health due to the fact that itll affect the chain, ultimately it may bring forth damage to humanity. Furthermore, there have been experimental results that cause major concern: single-walled nanotube can cause lesions in the lungs of rats. 15 percent died from suffocation! A plethora of people have trepidation for the division that will become more apparent between rich and poor countries nanotechnology will cause; exclusively developed countries will be benefiting from the reward of research due to having sufficient money to mass produce and distribute the products stemming from nanotechnology. (Richard Booker and Earl Boysen, 2005) Countries with less-educated works would be unable to compete in the nano technology-related future due to a lack of knowledge. Benefits in medicine will be focused on financial issues and wont be shared equally. Therefore, poor countries wouldnt be able to improve their medicine to improve peoples lives and/or wellbeing. Some governments had the privilege to invest money into nanotechnology with genetically engineered foods in the super market shelves. Which causes controversial quarrel and an uproar due to the dangers if nano foods and pesticides that may impede on the health of others. (Richard Booker and Earl Boysen, 2005) Poorer countries. To conclude there are many negative aspect of nanotechnology to consider. Humanity should ask the question; does the positive of nanotechnology outweigh the negatives? Evaluation There many benefits of nanotechnology. The advantages are that it can be used in many different disciplines and scientific fields. Because scientist are learning more about nanotechnology everyday there are more discoveries that could be made to benefit a lot of people. The options are limitless. On the other hand nanotechnology has concerning disadvantages. The disadvantages are scientists dont know the damage that could be caused to the environment and peoples health. Poor countries may face the most difficulty[DS5]. Overall, the benefits of nanotechnology outweigh the disadvantages because scientists could find various ways to overcome to the difficulties as they could make more instruments to understand how atoms and materials work. Nanotechnology will cause a great paradigm shift because itll be involved in many fields[DS6]. There have been trillion of dollars invested into to nanotechnology and an astronomical time put into it. Therefore, it would be wise to put our time to good use and allow nanotechnology to come to fruition. Summary[DS7] More time should be time and money should be invested into nanotechnology so we can develop it further. It has great potential and it should not go to waste. Ethicality of research[DS8] The researcher should always bring integrity, fairness and honesty to ensure anyone involved in an experiment is safe and it give you a piece of mind as you are being honest. Integrity in tells no coercing or deceiving the people involved. This means the participant should be willing to volunteer information; they have the right to withdraw from the research at any stage. Honesty involves considering the impact on people lives and environment to judge if the research or experiment will be pragmatic and will be more beneficial than a hindrance. In addition, is the experiment morally right? Because there could me more benefits than harm but the lives of test subjects may be put at risk or harmed. That is the most significant aspect to take into account. The scientist carry out primary research must always be explicit in what they tell the participants of what will occur so they dont have a failed understanding. For example they should be aware of the possible outcomes of the research, the associated demands and discomfort people may experience. If the experiment may cause danger to a persons life the experts conducting the research must have strong justifications of why it is necessary. It is vital that there is academic integrity. Thus you must have permission to use intellectual property such as journals. And you shouldnt assume you have automatic permission. Being ethical is crucial because it protects the scientist from losing their job, losing money or in some cases being arrested; it protects anyone involved in research to be protected as well. Methodology[DS9] The method used to collect data was by reading books to gain an insight as to what nanotechnology is. Looking at different journals online and thinking which one is the most relevant to the subject. At each stage the way information was collected is by writing down ideas and knowledge obtained from secondary research to think of a logical order to structure the findings. This allows the project to be coherent. The role of the researcher is to find important a sufficient amount of information to implement into the project. There isnt much way the personal behaviour of the researcher can be effect because the research is secondary. The best research method for gaining textual data was by reading it thoroughly and observing as which data will be relevant. Then extracting and compiling the relevant research. For the project numerical data wasnt needed to understand nanotechnology, although it could have been used to observe and think about the subject on different angles. (April Klazema ,june 12,2014[DS10], )The main difference between objectivity and subjectivity is in the way that these arguments are presented. Subjective information whether it is in written or spoken form is generally considered to be a single persons opinion. It has a viewpoint, or possibly a bias, regardless of the information it provides. Remember to reference Budgeting[DS11] Borrowing books were free because they were borrowed from the library. This means there was no need to purchase any books. The journals were free; however the library paid approximately  £20 for the journals viewed. The journals used were free as they came from a free source on Google. There was no need to print any resources as you can access the journals online. It cost  £2 to purchase lines and plain paper from the shop to write ideas down and make a plan. Appendices References[DS12] Nanotechnology for dummies Richard Booker and Earl Boysen 2005 Opportunities and risks of Nanotechnologies , Report in co-operation with the OECD International Futures Programme 20016 April klazema. 2014. Objective vs. Subjective Writing: Understanding the Difference. [ONLINE] Available at: https://blog.udemy.com/objective-vs-subjective/. [Accessed 12 June 2014]. Word count Words: 1,952 [DS1]Incorrect referencing style. [DS2]Incorrect referencing style used. [DS3]This need to be at the end of the sentence with the period after the last bracket. [DS4]Another way you could have used this reference is: Albeit, broker and Boysen (2005) suggestsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Also, in-text reference used is incorrect. [DS5]A reference would be needed to support this statement. [DS6]Such as? [DS7]You could have added further context to your summary. You raised a lot of good points in your body. How could further research impact/improve nanotechnology? Which area of nanotechnology could use further research during this stage in its development? You could have brought some of these questions into context at this stage. [DS8]What ethical constraints would this field of study face? And how would you address them? [DS9]Good. [DS10]No the format for in-text Harvard referecing [DS11]Good [DS12]This is not the format for Harvard referencing.   Ã‚  

Critically Examine the Arguments for and Against Deliberately Trying to Change Organizations

Assessed Essay OC4 â€Å"Critically examine the arguments for and against deliberately trying to change organizations† Introduction Before we begin to explore whether it is a worthwhile exercise to seek to change an organisation through a planned approach we must first begin with a definition of our terms. What might we mean by â€Å"deliberate†, â€Å"change† and an â€Å"organisation† To do so will help us explore under what circumstances planned change may be worthwhile or even possible. Huczynski & Buchanan (1991) define organizations as â€Å"social arrangements for the controlled performance of collective goals†. This definition fits well those who would propose a deliberate change approach as it suggests an element of control of the organisation is possible. It also pictures the organisation as a separate entity whose goal is to control and that there is agreement by the members on what these goals should be. The fits with the roots of Organisational Development that the performance of the organisation can be enhanced by exerting control in some way over the structures, processes and individuals that make up the organisation. Some would take issue however with the concept of the organisation as a seperate entity: Morgan (1986) â€Å"organizations are complex and paradoxical phenomena that can be understood in different ways† thus change of the organisation is a much more complex issue. In Morgans view, the idea that we can identify the elements that make up the organisation, in the same way that you might dismantle a machine, does not allow for the complexity that exists. As our view of the organisation affects our perspective our definition of the type of change we are examining will also affect the scope of our investigation. Schein (1969) defines change as â€Å"the initiation of new patterns of action, belief and attitudes among substantial segments of the population†. Change is something that is started by someone (a change agent), but does not necessarily need to involve everyone. For Schein, change is deep rooted in that it goes beyond the surface level change of process and goes to the core of behaviour: beliefs and attitudes. Lippett (1973) uses a broader definition: â€Å"any planned or unplanned alteration to the status quo†. We will explore whether, using such a broad definition, the planned approach might be more suitable to particular contexts. Our final term in need of definition is â€Å"deliberate change†. Ford & Ford (1995) define this as â€Å"when a change agent deliberately and consciously sets out to establish conditions and circumstances that are different from what they are now and then accomplishes that through some set or series of actions and interventions either singularly or in collaboration with other people†. Thus deliberate change involves intent that distinguishes it from change which is not consciously produced and instead occurs as a series of side effects, accidents or unanticipated consequences of actions. The Arguments for Deliberate Change 1. Performance is enhanced by the controlled introduction of change rather than allowing it to happen haphazardly. It is worth noting that the classical approach, from which this argument derives, was developed during a period when the management approach was fairly reactive and adhoc. The scientific approach to management was an attempt to create order and efficiency. Fayol (1949), suggested the role of mangers is to plan, organise, command, co-ordinate and control. Critics of the approach would attack the concept of leadership portrayed by Fayol and others e. g. Collins who speaks of â€Å"Level 5† leaders who are more servants than charismatic controllers; those who would look in the mirror when performance dips and praise their team for the successes achieved. Those who would act more as facilitators than controllers. There is also wider criticism of the notion that planned change is good for organisations per se. This seems to be a notion that permeates much of OD literature, that individuals need to be controlled for change to be effective.. Croch et al challenges the view that because leaders see unprecedented turbulence they act as a buffer to the organisation to minimise this by resistance, denial or inaction. Leaders are inherently obstructionist in their stance. Burnes & Stalker (1961) found that rather than act as a blocker to change; leaders seized the opportunity to initiate action. Thus one could argue that rather than needing to control individual action it may be more appropriate to allow individuals the freedom to seize the opportunities that prevail around them. One could also question the view that planned change is more effective than â€Å"unplanned† change. Studies examining the success of transformations have suggested that 66% of organisations fail in their change efforts (Sturdy 7 Grey (2003) 2. Change now takes place at an ever accelerating rate, if managers do not plan how to deal with change there is a danger that the organisation will be driven by vagaries of its environment. Some critics would question the notion that change is as rapid and all pervasive as some writers would suggest. Weick (1985) would argue that the turbulence is only created in the perception of those who create the turbulence rather than by the events themselves. One could argue that rather than planned change perhaps there is a call for planned stability. Individuals may be getting tired of the changes that are imposed upon them and instead seek stability in their environment. Some would argue change has always been with us, others would argue that stability is equally as prevalent. The notion that change is a given is built on Darwinian concept that all things evolve in a common way to attain improved circumstances. 3. Planned change is the most effective way to deliver the performance as organisations need long term strategic plans to enable them to attain the results they require. This build from a top down view of the organisation guided by a group of rational individuals who make decisions for the good of the organsiation and its members. Taylor (1911) and his scientific view of management â€Å"the work of everyman is fully planned out by management† supported the concept of leaders as rational decision makers, fully able to plan every task of the workers who in turn simply carried out the tasks assigned to them. John Harvey-Jones and would support this managerialist position by building a picture of the â€Å"hero† manager fully capable of implementing any change they see fit. The argument also portrays the change process itself as rational capable of being controlled e. g. Leighs (1988) who identifies a list of internal and external triggers to change that can enable the control to take place. Pettigrew (1985) criticises the approach for taking an acontextual, atheoretical and aprocessual stance: organisations are not this independent entity that the writers suggest. Clegg (1990) suggests organisations are embedded in a network of wider social relationships. Organisations don’t just reside in an environment; they are part of its fabric. Thus even if the leaders have the skills the control of the complexity would be beyond them. There is also criticism aimed at the assumption that planned change results in the intended outcomes. Grevenhoest et al (2003) â€Å"The outcome of the change process is often different from what was planned and new projects are often started before previous ones have finished properly† Other studies have questioned the success rate of planned change in achieving their initial goals. What would be the â€Å"success rate† of unplanned change? How much change takes place as a reaction of internal and external forces rather than through some strategic planning process? 3. Planned change enables the change agent and those implementing the change to take into account a range of issues that would not otherwise be included. Although this may be true it does not necessarily follow that this means they are able to influence or control these factors. The argument, by adopting a scientific approach assumes that by identifying the issues the individuals then have the skills and ability to manipulate the â€Å"issues† to make the change more effective. Such capacity, even if it is possible, presumes highly sophisticated skills. Would the individuals possess such skills? . Planned change enables leaders of the change to ensure that the changes are introduced in such a way that they are accepted by the individuals within the organisation. Ford & Ford (1995) point to the power of communication in driving change. â€Å"everything, including prevailing conditions and circumstances, is seen as created by and in communication†¦ in the absence of communica tion there is no intentional change. † Such communications follow fairly simple patterns and the drivers of change can use different types of conversation to make the changes happen. At a more macro Level Lewin (1951) placed the individual in the group to which they belong which forms the individuals perceptions, feelings and actions. He maintained the status quo is held together by various field forces which, when identified could be strengthened or diminished to bring about the necessary change. By â€Å"unfreezing† the status quo, then â€Å"moving† to the new state and finally â€Å"re freezing† the changes become effective. These concepts seem to adopt a rather simplified view of individual behaviour and of the change process itself. They imply change can be mapped as a set of stages hat individuals go through and which can then be planned and controlled, e. g. by the use of communication techniques. Bandura (1986) questions this simplistic approach to individual behaviour and instead proposes a social cognitive view â€Å" people are neither driven by inner forces nor automatically shaped and controlled by external stimuli†¦behavi our, cognitive and other personal forces and environmental events all operate as interacting determinants of each other. Arguments against Planned Change Burnes and Salauroo (1995) aim four criticisms at the planned change approach: 1. Much of OD on which it is based was designed for top-down, autocratic; rule based organisations, which operated in a predictable and stable environment. Such a picture of the organisation is one that the management Guru’s of the 1980’s and 1990’s fought against (Peters & Waterman, Kanter) arguing instead for an organisation that was bottom up, that was built around team working rather than hierarchy. Involving matrix management and extended spans of control rather than vast hierarchical structures to exercises control over the workers. Handy (2001) now argues that such vast hierarchical organisations will be few in numbers and instead the workforce will be epitomised by â€Å"fleas† living in some symbiotic relationship but over whom the large organisations have little control. Thus one should not attempt to apply the principles to a business environment that undergoes constant change and whose watchwords are consultation and facilitation rather than authority and control. However to suggest that all organisations have moved away from a top down, autocratic stance is perhaps a little naive. Many may advocate a consultative approach but it is still the board of directors who make the strategic decisions. There is also the argument highlighted previously that the notion of rapid continual change is one of perception rather than concrete reality. 2. The focus of planned change tends to be on incremental change, taking place through a series of defined and controllable phases (Lewin) and so it is unable to incorporate radical transformational change (Schein) Planned change involves detailed diagnosis of the issues, action and then evaluation before further action and evaluation in an iterative cycle. It recognises change needs to be self-sustaining. Quinn (1980) draws a picture of the executive who seeks out, through various channels, a range of data before proactively taking steps to â€Å"implant support†, form coalitions, and constantly re evaluate the direction of the organisation as he moved it gradually in the direction he seeks. Such planned change, could be very costly and labour intensive. Payne & Reddin’s study of a major change at a tobacco factory calculated the cost as 25-person manager years of OD. Is such a cost justified in light of the research that suggests much of the changes would prove ineffective? In the case of rapid, radical change a coercive approach might be more appropriate than the planned approach. Does change really take place in such a controlled, phased way? Are change agents able to introduce change in such a controlled way? What about the role of power and politics? Buchanan & Badham suggested that politics is a reality and by necessity change agents have to get involved otherwise the changes are likely to fail. However, would the change agent have the skills to engage in such behaviour successfully? If the change involves culture change, difficulties start at the analysis stage as culture is difficult to define therefore how can you then plan to make changes? Where would the start and end point be and how would you evaluate the differences? 3. Planned change makes the assumption that there is common agreement between all parties and that they all have a willingness and interest in making the changes. It seems to adopt a unitarist approach to change that suggests organisations are essentially co operative, that little conflict exists amongst the members on the overall aims of the organisation. Both the pluralist and radical schools would argue much conflict exists in reality. The radical school might go as far as to suggest that the workers need protection from management, as the drivers of the two groups are completely different. Certainly the planned approach seems to view the managers as rational, altruistic individuals who always act for the good of the organisation and its members. Bowman C. (1999) suggests that changes to the status quo tend to emerge from action and rarely come from strategic analysis. It is far better then for changes to take place as a stream of decisions over time than agreeing some common vision of the outcomes intended by the changes. The Marxist view would challenge this by suggesting that as their focus is on increasing profits, by necessity that involves the exploitation of the members of the organisation. 4. The planned approach assumes the approach is suitable for all organisations. Pettigrew & Whipp (1991) instead suggest that no such universal rules exist and leading change actually involves a flow of actions that need to be appropriate to the context rather then working through some recipe for success as is suggested by some texts e. g. Leighs (1988) â€Å"Effective change: twenty ways to make it happen† Pettigrew (1985) criticises the approach for concentrating on change episodes rather than the â€Å"processual dynamics of changing†. Few have undertaken longitudinal studies to explore the process of change which would enable you to place the changes in the context within which they occur: For Pettigrew it is these structures and contexts which give the changes â€Å"form, meaning and dynamic†. He also criticises planned change for assuming managers work to achieve an end state that is knowable and achievable whereas change is a complex process that doesn’t occur in bite size chunks. You need to explore the process of changing and not just the change itself. This is perhaps rather a harsh criticism, as it was not suggested that the approach would suit all situations at all times. In fact the focus is very much on incremental change however even here critics question the basic tenets of the approach built on the idea that change takes place as a steady flow of incremental changes towards a common goal. Gersick (1991) suggests a â€Å"punctuated equilibrium paradigm† through which to view change to challenge the view that individual systems develop along the same path. Gersick proposes the notion of periods of equilibrium punctuated by revolutionary periods that cause upheaval in the change process rather than some gradual incremental step to the end goal. Van de Van & Poole (1995) suggest that rather than take the â€Å"one shoe fits all approach† we need to look at the different perspectives through which writers view change and explore where they are inter related. One could also argue that the planned approach to change suggests that conflict needs to be eliminated and organisations need to strive for a smooth transition from one state to another. The notion goes back to the notion that change occurs in phases and the concept that individuals reaction hen faced with change is to attempt to block it. There has also been much criticism of the planned approach in that, although it attempts to tackle â€Å"how to implement change† when it comes to specific guidance the writers provide little substance. Recipes for success do exist however they are very general in their approach e. g. The planned approach seems to view change as episodic, the result being that it takes the view that the organisation exists in a stable environment which is interrupted by periods of change which need to be controlled to ensure a smooth transition from one state to another and recreate the stability. The role of the change agent is to create the change by focusing on leverage points that will help ensure any conflict is resolved. It is possible however to take a different perspective: Weick & Quinn (1999) Organisations are not specific entities but social processes, which are emergent and constantly changing rather than inert. Change instead of punctuated equilibrium is a pattern of endless incremental modifications that is driven by a range of internal and external forces. As such rather than using a set recipe for success the individuals involved in the change need a vast range of skills to enable them to adapt to the forces affecting them. Change is not an end state but a process that is cyclical. The role of the change agent is to facilitate rather than create, to redirect the change that already takes place rather than create change. However Weick and Quinn argue that because episodic change examines change at the macro level and continuous change at the micro level it is possible to reconcile the two approaches. â€Å" Change is a mixture of reactive and proactive modifications, guided by purposes at hand, rather than an intermittent interruption of periods of convergence†. Collins (1998) â€Å"change and continuity are not alternative objective states†¦. Because they are typically coexistent†¦what constitutes change or continuity is perspective dependent† One could ask the question: Do managers need to learn how to manage change or â€Å"enhance stability and learn to manage continuity if they want to survive? † References Armenakis, A. A. and Bedeian A. G. (1999) Organizational Change: a Review of Theory and research in the 1990s. Journal of Management 25 (3) 293-315. Bandura, A. 1986 Social Foundations of thought and Action: a social cognitive theory. Bowman, C. 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(2003) The change capacity of Organisations: general assessment and Five Configurations. Applied Psychology 52 (1) 83-105. Greenwood, R. and Hinings, C. R. (1996) Understanding radical Organizational Change: Bringing together the old and new institutionalism. Aca demy of Management Review 21 (4) 1022-1054. Hardy, C. (1996) Understanding Power: bringing about strategic change. British Journal of Management 7 (special issue):S3-S16. Hoskings, D. M. and Anderson, N 1992 Organizational change and innovation: Psychological perspectives and practices in Europe. Petigrew, A. and Whipp, R,1993 Managing Change for competitive success. Pettigrew et al (2001) Studying Organizational Change and development: Challenges for future research. Academy of Management Journal 44 (4) 697-713 Quinn, J. B. (1980) Managing strategic change. Sloan Management Review 21 (4) 67-86. Rajagopalan, N. and Spreitzer, G. M. 1996 Toward a theory of strategic change: a multi-lens perspective and integrative framework. Academy of Management Review 22 (1) 48-79. Sturdy, A. and Grey , C. (2003) Beneath and Beyond organizational change management: exploring alternatives 10 (4) 651-662. Tsoukas, H. (1998) Chaos, complexity and organization theory Organization 5 (3) 291-313. Van de Van A. H. and Poole, M. S. (1995). Explaining development and change in Organizations. Academy of Management Review 20 (3): 510-540. Weick, K. E. and Quinn, R. E. (1999) Organizational change and development. Annual Review of Psychology 50: 361-386. Weick K. E. (2000) Emergent Change as a universal in organizations in â€Å"Breaking the code

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